Health and Safety in Construction

health and asylum in facial expressionThis chapter begins with a general discussion on the conception of resort before examining the modern patronage with run shortplace health and galosh, itemally in the reflection effort. To better relate to the scope of this study, it impart also review the current wagerplace pencil eraser and health posture in the Singapores reflection constancy. Subsequently, an all overview of the safeguard jurisprudences and policies undertaken in Singapore to mend mental synthesis preventative device get out be investigated. substructure to natural rubber deviceAlthough the term preventative is very oft used in our everyday life, the concept of galosh can have various meanings for different people. According to Oxford Dictionaries Online, resort is delineate as the condition of being protected from or unlikely to catch danger, risk or injury. Moreover, as safeguard is commonplacely viewed from the perspective of specific i njury domains, some injury preventive seekers defined guard duty as the prevention of crime and violence whereas the former(prenominal)(a)s described it as a sentiment of being out of danger or as a blessedness of the canonical adult male physiological rents.Hence, ascribable to the multitude of views on the description of arctic, the World health Organisation (WHO) Collaborating Centres on caoutchouc Promotion and flaw Prevention has develop an international consensus on the conceptual and operable aspects of galosh in 1998 (Nilsen et al., 2004). They have defined base hit as a farming in which hazards and conditions leading to physical, psychological or material harm ar controlled in order to preserve the health and well-being of individuals and the community. This definition of caoutchouc contains two dimensions, of which one is objective and can be assessed by touchstone behavioural and environmental parameters whereas the other is subjective and can be eva luated accord to the feeling of being safe (WHO, 1998).In addition, safety is a conclusion of a multi ingrediential process which integrates humans behaviour and interaction with their physical, social, cultural, technological, political, stinting and organisational environment. According to Maurice et al. (2001), the optimum take of safety can and be attained with the presence of four conditions that proved beneficial in delimit the domain of safety. flurry 2.1 indicates the four basic conditions for safety. prorogue 2.1 Four basic conditions that define the domain for safetyFour Conditions for gum elastic1)A temper of social cohesion, peace and equity between groups that protects human rights and independences2)The respect of the determine of individual and their physical, material and psychological integrity3)The prevention and control of injuries and other consequences or harm crusaded by shots4)The provision of in effect(p) mea veritables to cope with inapplicabl e traumatic eventsSource Maurice et al. (2001) oeuvre Safety and Health (WSH)Before 1880s, in that respect was little interest in work safety and minimal protective cover for the safety of workers in their workplaces because legislation, precedent and public opinion were all in favour of the steering (Pearson, n.d.). Moreover, workplace accidents were perceived to be cheap and were often disregarded because there were no workers remuneration laws that protect the interest of workers. Thus, work-related accidents were common then.However, in the late 1900s, workers safety and health in the workplaces begun to receive maturation anxiety ascribable to the rapid industrialisation of the United States (U.S.) and the establishment of unions that invoke the need for safer working conditions. Hence, the high fatalities and injuries rate then compel the federal official governing to implement various acts to force the industries to reduce the go alongrence of work-related acciden ts or illnesses so as to improve on the safety standards of their workplaces (Aldrich, 2001). Some initiatives of the federal government include passing of the occupational Safety and Health correspond (OSHA) in 1970 and the enactment of the workers compensation laws.Therefore, tighter employers liability and the steep increase in the cost of accident due to the compensation laws have initiated the employers interest and concern with work safety (Aldrich, 2001 Alton, n.d.). As a result, significant improvement in the workplace safety and health achievement can be observe as fatalities rate in the U.S. declines from 27 deaths per 100,000 workers in 1950 to 3.5 in 2011 respectively (BLS, 2012 Kaufman, 1997). The safety performance in British manufacturing had also amend significantly since the debut of the Health and Safety at Work correspond (HSWA) in 1974 as the fatalities rate has lessen from 2.9 per 100,000 workers in 1974 to 0.5 in 2011 (HSE, n.d.). kindred OSHA, HSWA i s the primary piece of legislation covering occupational health and safety in the United Kingdom (UK). Figure 2.1 illustrates the work-related fatalities rate among different countries.Safety in the tress IndustrySafety has always been a study issue in the construction industry. In umteen developed and underdeveloped countries, the construction industry has constantly been ranked as one of the crush industries in terms of the relative frequency of fatalities and work-related injuries. opposed the other industries where it nighly consists of a stationary fabrication descendting with little changes in working procedures, equipment and tire force, the working environment in the construction industry is generally complex and ever-changing. This is due to the multidisciplinary and multitasked aspects of the parties involved in the pop out and also the use of civilize plants, equipment and construction methods (Teo, torsk, Chong, 2005). Thus, this highly differentiated and u nstructured nature of the construction industry makes safety management extremely dispute (Gambatese, Hinze, Haas, 1997 Lingard, 2012 Zhang, Teizer, Lee, Eastman, Venugopal, 2012). numerous research and studies over the years have attempted to have a bun in the oven into improving construction safety using various concepts such as designing for safety (Gangolells, Casals, Forcada, Roca, Fuertes, 2010), HR practices (Lai, 2009 Lai, Liu, Ling, 2011) and BIM technologies (Azhar, Nadeem, Mok, Leung, 2008 Kiviniemi, Sulankivi, Khknen, Mkel, Merivirta, 2011 Qi, 2011 Zhang et al., 2012)For instance, the Britain authorities have long recognised that safety should be addressed from the very start of a project and they be the first to introduce the Construction (Design and Management) Regulation in 1994 and revised in 2007 respectively. This law places duties on clients, designers and contractors for consideration of safety issues from design by dint of the wipeout stage of a pro ject (Hecker Gambatese, 2003). According to Gibb (2002), this regulation has lead to an increase in the pro file cabinet of construction safety among designers in several European Union (EU) countries. Additionally, Australia has also introduced the sit down WHS Regulation 2011 whereby have to provide a Safe Design discover that specify the hazards relating to the design of the structure to the somebody carrying out the construction work (Safe Design Australia, 2011).Therefore, good safety training and management throughout the project life cycle become an essential prerequisite for most construction projects because without a thorough understanding of safety issues on site, undesirable work-related accidents will occur. This will then incur excess cost, unnecessary project delays and in the worst perspective, the loss of lives (Lai et al., 2011). Therefore, the next separate will attempt to understand the different safety issues on sites by first identifying the various root causes of accidents.Causes of adventuresAccording to Teo (2009), accidents are unintentional and undesirable events that can cause pain, suffering, damage and injury to the affected person(s) or worthyty, if non a combination of both. While not all work-related accidents will cause physical injuries or damages, the occurrence of any accidents on site will definitely challenge the quality of the construction site operation. Therefore, there is a need to understand the various causes influencing safety performance in the construction industry so as to better develop strategies to tackle this concerning issue.A review of the literature on construction safety reveals that much research efforts have been directed to understand the factors and causes that can influence construction accidents (Abdelhamid Everett, 2000 Hamid, Majid, Singh, 2008 Hughes Ferrett, 2008 Suraji, Duff, Peckitt, 2001). Many types of theories have been developed throughout the decades to understand the acci dent cause factors. The early research can be traced back into the 1930s were Heinrich (1931) had pioneered the accident causation theories by developing the five-domino put of causation. The domino supposition had been the foundation work of many other mildews that were developed by other researchers thereafter.According to Ridley (1976), most of the accidents on site are either caused by life-threatening acts, vulnerable conditions or frequently a combination of both. An dangerous act refers to a violation of an accepted safety procedures which then permits the occurrence of an accident whereas an unsafe condition refers to a hazardous physical condition or setting that are in violation of contemporary safety standards. Table 2.2 leave the development of different theories that were developed to understand the accident causation factors.Table 2.2 Development of different models to understand the accident causation factorsTypesCharacteristic of simulateModel / TheoryAut horsAccident Causation ModelsUnderstand the various accident causation factorsDevelop tools for better accident prevention programme eye mask TheoryHenrich (1932)Multiple Causation ModelPetersen (1971)Stairstep ModelAdams (1976)ARCTM Construction ModelAbdelhamid Everett (2000)Behaviour ModelsStudies the tendency of humans to make errors under various smear and environment conditionsAccidents are mainly a result of human unsafe characteristic onlyAccident proneness guessAccident (1983)Goals freedom alertness theoryKerr (1957)Motivation reward satisfactionPetersen (1975)Sociological theory of accidentsDwyer and Raftery (1991)Human Factor ModelsHolds human error the main cause of accidents unconnected the behaviour model, the responsibility not only fall on human unsafe characteristic aloneThe responsibility also fall on the design of workplace, which does not take into consideration the limitation of humanFerrel theoryFerrel (1977)Human-error causation modelPetersen (1982)McClay mo delMcClay (1989)DeJoy modelDeJoy (1990)Source Abdelhamid and Everett (2000)To tailor to the need of the construction industry in identifying the root cause of accidents, Abdelhamid and Everett (2000) had developed an Accident Root Causes Tracing Model (ARCTM) after further development and tax deduction from various existing accident causation models. ARCTM proposed that unsafe conditions can occur before or after the start of an activity and they can either be caused by human-related or nonhuman-related factors. Table 2.3 illustrates the different causes of unsafe conditions that skill lead to accidents.Similar to that proposed by Abdelhamid and Everett (2000) and Suraji et al. (2001), Toole (2002) has also tried to identify and property the basic root causes of construction accidents to factors such as lack of proper training, poor enforcement of safety, use of unsafe equipment, methods or sequencing, unsafe site conditions and a poor attitude towards safety. The aforementioned are just some of the many studies undertaken by researchers in an attempt to identify the root causes of work-related accidents so as to develop better preventive strategies (Hill, 2003). Even though there has been a significant improvement in the safety performance of the construction industry as compared to the past, much has to be done to further reduce the fatalities and work-related injuries frequency rate.Table 2.3 Main causes of unsafe conditions which can lead to accidentsMain Causes of grave ConditionsHuman FactorsManagement action or inactionWorker or co-workers unsafe actsFail to provide proper or adequate face-to-face protective equipmentViolate workplace standardsInsufficient ventilationPoor maintainPoor designSabotaging equipmentUnauthorised operation of equipmentInsufficient rest small-arm workingRemoving safety deviceSource Abdelhamid and Everett (2000)Construction Safety in SingaporeThe construction industry in Singapore has been one of the swift growing indus tries since Singapore embarked on her various industrialisation programme in the early 1960s. However, the safety situation in the industry then deteriorated so drastically that the government had to introduce the Factories characterization in 1973 to regulate occupational safety and health in Singapore. Since then, Singapores statutory OSH regime was governed by the Factories tour.However, due to the high-profile and fatal accident that took place in Nicoll Highway in 2004, this had called attention to the need for a reform of the current legislative approach to OSH (Teh, 2006 Teo, 2009). This has thence led to the unveiling of a tonic body of work Safety and Health (WSH) material in 2005 and the trigger of the WSH morsel in 2006, which will cancel and replace the former Factories Act. The novel WSH Act became the key legal pecker for the WSH framework and it aims to cultivate good safety and health practices among all individuals in their workplaces. Additionally, WSH 2 015 Strategy was developed concurrently so as to complement with the new framework. This strategy aims to halve the workplace fatality rate from 4.9 fatalities per 100,000 workers in 2004 to 2.5 by 2015. As a result of the dynamic and changing WSH landscape, a fledged industry-led WSH Council was established in 2008 and a new national target was developed by identifying enhancements to the previous WSH 2015 Strategy. This new strategy, named WSH 2018 aims to achieve an even more challenging goal, which is to reduce the fatality rate to less than 1.8 fatalities per 100,000 employed workers by 2018 (WSH2018, 2009). With the introduction of WSH Council, WSH Council (Construction Landscape) Committee was formed and Implementing WSH 2018 for Construction Industry was developed specifically to reach the efforts of the construction industry to achieve better WSH performance.Following these efforts to increase the safety performance in the construction industry, it is noted that there is a infrequent improvement in the safety performance in 2011. According to the WSH Report 2011, construction industry was the only one that saw a dash off in fatality takingss as the fatality rate decreased from 8.1 per 100,000 employed persons in 2010 to 5.3 in 2011, as shown in the Figure 2.2 (WSH, 2011). This is a significant improvement as the fatality rate of 5.3 in 2011 is the lowest-ever since 2006. Furthermore, the number of work-related injuries has also fallen by 22% as compared to 2010 (channelnewsasia, 2012).Despite the peremptory progression in the safety performance, it still the Great Compromiser as a serious concern as fatality rate continued to posting for the highest among all industries in Singapore as shown in Table 2.4. Thus, in order to achieve the targeted result set aside for the construction industry as seen in Figure 2.3, all stakeholders will have to return themselves to work towards a safe and healthy workplace with a spirited WSH culture and zero injury (WSH2018Construction, 2010). In addition, more efforts have to be put to prevent falling from height because it remains as the major contributor to fatal accidents (see Figure 2.4).Till date, many studies have been conducted to look into improving construction safety in Singapore. For example, Ling, Ofori, and Teo (2004) have constructed a model to predict the safety level of a construction project site. Moreover, Ling and Teo (2006) have studied the intrinsic and international incentives on increasing worksite safety and found out that there are many personal factor that can affect site safety.Safety Policies and LegislationMinistry of Manpower (MOM) is the government regulatory body responsible for the enforcement of workplace safety and health legislations. throughout the years, MOM, in collaboration with other government agencies and stakeholders have put in extensive efforts in achieving significant and sustained improvement in the WSH performance for the construction industry. In this section, various policies and legislations that have been introduced particularly to improve on the safety performance in the construction industry will be discussed.Workplace Safety and Health (WSH) ActIn the past, Singapores primary legislation in the construction safety regime was governed by Chapter 104 of the Factories Act and percentage 68 and 77 of the construction Operations and Work of Engineering Construction (BOWEC) Regulations (Cheah, 2007). However, due to the spate of high-profile accidents in 2004, MOM saw the need for a fundamental reform of the former safety policies and legislations in order to chasten the rising numbers of work-related accidents on site. Hence, as part of the new WSH framework that was introduced in 2006, the Factories Act was repealed and replaced by the Workplace Safety and Health Act on 1 March 2006. As a result, the OSH regulation has evolved from a highly prescriptive (rule-based) system to a more descriptive (performance- based) approach.Unlike the former Factories Act where industry players were expected to comply with a rigid set of safety guidelines, the new WSH Act is focused on common chord guiding principles reduce risk at source, instil greater self-command of safety and health outcome by industry players, and impose high penalties for poor safety management. This is a paradigm shift from the former Factories Act because it encourages every industry player to be more proactive sort of than reactive to safety issues.Workplace Injury stipend Act (WICA)The former Workmens Compensation Act has been replaced by the Workplace Injury Compensation Act (WICA), which came into effect on the world-class April 2008. Unlike the former Act which only covers manual and non-manual workers earning $1,600 or less per month, WICA is applicable for all employees regardless of their level of earnings. The enactment of WICA is essential because it safeguards the interest of all employees and employers as th e former are now able to claim compensations for work-related injuries forthwith without having to prove fault whereas the last mentioned are protected against the fraudulent claims of errant employees (MOM WSHC, 2008). At the same time, this new Act enhances the effectiveness and efficiency of the compensation process and indirectly, influences the employers to pay more attention to workplace safety and health issues.In order for WICA to beat updated with the current market situation, amendments have been to WICA and it will take effect from 1st June 2012. The key objectives of the recent changes are to maintain a fair ease between the pay-outs for the injured employees and the responsibilities that fall on the employers and also, to ensure that the WICA framework remains efficient so that injured employees can receive compensation promptly (MOM, 2012). Some of the major changes include increasing the compensation limits, prohibiting compensation due to work-related fights and work-related exclusion clauses and expanding the scope for compensable diseases. Table 2.5 illustrates the recent amendments to the compensation limits.Safety and Health Management outline (SHMS)Safety and Health Management System (SHMS) is a systematic process that is mandatory for all workplaces such as worksite, shipyard and factories in Singapore. It provides a platform for goal setting, performance measurement and clear management commitments and direction in order to manage human and organisational risks (MOM, n.d.-b). SHMS guides the efforts for an effective and proactive carrying out of risk control measures to reduce work-related injuries, which will by and by lead to a long-term reduction in operational costs (Baliyan, 2008). To build up an effective SHMS, it has to adhere to the relevant WSH legislation and guidelines set out for the construction industry, such as the SS 506 Part 1 2009 occupational safety and health (OSH) management system and CP 79 1999 Safety mana gement system for construction worksites. In tandem with the SHMS, audits and reviews must also be carried out periodically on SHMS to ensure its continual performance (MOM, n.d.-a). Table 2.6 shows the requirements for SHMS audit or review depending on the projects contract sum.To make sure that SHMS is effective and relevant in addressing construction safety, Teo et al. (2005) have developed a model to measure the effectiveness of the SHMS of construction sites in Singapore.Summary of ChapterThis chapter has looked into the concept of safety before focusing on workplace health and safety especially in the construction industry. It has also reviewed on the construction situation in Singapore and highlighted the various policies and legislations that are in place to improve the safety performance for the construction industry in Singapore.ReferencesAbdelhamid, T. S., Everett, J. G. (2000). Identifying root causes of construction accidents. diary of Construction Engineering and Man agement, 126(1), 52-60. Retrieved from http//faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/CEM/jannadi/Identifying-Root-Causes-Of-Constuction-Accident.pdfAldrich, M. (2001). History of Workplace Safety in the United States 1880-1970. EH.net Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http//eh.net/encyclopedia/article/aldrich.safety.workplace.usAlton, G. (n.d.). The history of workplace safety and health. eHow. 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